1. Introduction

This paper is an extension of work originally presented in “IEEE International Conference on Sensors and Nanotechnology 2019” [1]. Environmental monitoring have been a main topic in most fields of study. Conventional sensors nowadays such as microelectronic mechanical sensors (MEMS) or probe sensors are vulnerable to electromagnetic (EM) interference and wiring complications. This phenomena prevents its use in long-range sensing applications [2]. Fiber optic sensors is a promising alternative to conventional sensors due to its compact nature, EM proofing and multiplexing capabilities [3]. The simplicity of optical based sensors allows various sensing configurations such as absorption based sensors (interferometers) and grating based sensors. Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) sensor is an example of an optical sensor that operates by creating a periodic perturbation of light signals within the refractive index of its core. The gratings serves as wavelength filter that permits only light with wavelengths that dissatisfy the Bragg’s equation to permeate through while the light waves that satisfy the Bragg equation will be reflected back. Therefore, strains acting on the gratings with a set periodicity can induce a shift in the wavelength spectra. The shift in wavelength defines the condition of the parameter being sensed [4]. Commonly, FBG sensors are used for pressure and thermal sensing. However, FBG sensors can be modified to sense other forms of parameter such as humidity by introducing a sensitive coatings onto the sensitized regions of the sensor.

Operations of FBG sensors require a source of propagated broadband light. In some cases, FBG sensors are positioned in remote areas where power input availability is scarce. Normally, the light source are powered by conventional batteries which could have a short lifespan and can be inconvenient maintenance wise. Hence, a sustainable power source is desired. A promising source of green energy is from ambient vibrations within the earth’s crust [5]. The concept of vibration energy harvesting involves converting amplified vibrations at resonance into useful electrical power by means of kinetic energy distribution. Ambient vibration frequencies generally fall below 100.0 Hz. However, in civil structures, the frequency can drop to less than 10.0 Hz [6]. The acceleration level of these vibrations are very low being less than 1.0 g where g = 9.81 ms^-2, making it more suitable for low-power electronic application such as powering a light source.

This paper focuses on reporting simulated results of FBG tested with various different grating profiles, temperature sensing and transmission distance. Whilst simulating the FBG in different grating configurations, basis of the system which will be explained further sections will be tailored to a vibrational energy harvester power output. Since the proposed harvester design provides a low but steady power output to act as a light source, the whole FBG system will be run under low power to be simulated within various conditions including thermal and attenuation. It is an opportunity to simulate how well the system of FBG can be run with sufficient power with different types of gratings which differs from most other closely similar articles involving FBG simulation [7-9].

1.1.  Optical vs Conventional Sensor

Environment sensors that are still in use comes in various types. Electrical based sensor types such as the resistive probes, p-n junction diodes and MEMS sensors have been the staple sensor devices used over the years in monitoring various parameters [10]. Some sensors that have a very low power consumption of <1.0 mW and are made to be self-sustained by equipping the sensor with a solar panel harvester [11]. However, the operation these conventional sensors require electrical flow on the active sensitized regions of the sensor. This will render the sensors to be susceptible to electromagnetic interference and damage due to short circuit. Besides having a high maintenance cost, the complexity of the sensing mechanism in electrical based sensors available in market limits its capability to be embedded within a structure [12]. These drawbacks propel researchers to find alternatives such as optical fiber sensors.

Optical sensors alone can have many different configurations based on how the modification is formed on the surface, cladding, core or tip of the fiber. In addition to FBG sensors, other optical sensors include interferometers and absorption based sensors, which function based on the principal of the energy absorption spectrum and refractive index changes. However, grating based sensors possess an advantage over other optical based sensors in terms that they are more compact and ease of modification. In addition, FBG sensors have low noise, high sensitivity and a high multiplexing imprint capabilities via phase masking, which helps provide a large mapped sensing area within an environment [13].

1.2.  FBG Sensing Principle

FBG are made typically from phase masking, where periodic modulations of the refractive index are imprinted within the fiber core by intense UV laser, exposed perpendicularly to a single mode optical fiber. The modulated refractive indexes within the fiber core that has different refractive index values than the core and cladding acts as the wavelength filter for the incident propagated light. Based on Figure 1, light signals at wavelengths other than the Bragg wavelength would pass through whereas light signals with wavelength equal to the Bragg wavelength that would be reflected back. Therefore, the transmitted ray that passes the grating will have the Bragg wavelength absent in the main spectrum [14]. FBGs can be serially imprinted into one fiber at multiple sensitized regions (multiplexing). This allows the FBGs to have multiple functional sensor nodes along a fiber length which is essential for area mapping.

On their own, FBGs are strain, pressure and temperature sensitive. In temperature sensing, different temperatures would impose axial strain upon the FBG fiber based on coefficient of thermal expansion of the FBG material (which would normally be silica). This would cause a change in the pattern spectrum of the reflected light, resulting in a shift in the reflected wavelength. This shift in wavelength can be calibrated to identify temperature change [15]. Detection of non-physical parameters requires the FBG to be modified by coating the sensitized region with a reversibly reactive material nanostructures that can induce mechanical strain or reaction to the FBG when exposed to a measurand [16]. Generally, it is possible for a FBGs to sense chemical parameters such as salinity concentration [8], chemical gas concentration [17] and relative humidity of the environment [18]. Ease of modification of FBG to suit various environmental sensing applications makes FBG a viable sensing device to be studied and optimized.

Figure 1: Principle of FBG.

2. Methodology

In this study, the behaviour of FBG fiber is simulated with different grating profiles. Different grating profiles can have an effect to the output transmission and reflectivity of the fibers. The behaviour of the FBG as a temperature sensor are simulated in temperature ranges that relates to certain industries. Connection of fibers in a long range fiber setup are also simulated to show the viability of FBG sensor array assembly in a long-range network.

2.1.  Overall System Description

FBG sensors typically involve several components to be available for environmental monitoring. The following subsections explain each of the components in Figure 2 that are mandatory for FBG sensor implementation. Table 1 presents the constant parameters used in this study.

Table 1: System Setting.

2.2.  Source

Optical based devices require sources in form of propagated photons. Light source of broad spectrum is preferred when using FBG. Broad spectrum light source examples include white light source, amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) source and broadband light source.

Figure 2: Arrangement of FBG setting.

These sources typically propagate light of wavelength ranges that cover the Bragg’s wavelength of the FBG. Perturbed Bragg gratings in a fiber will show wavelength shifts, therefore for sources that only provide photons at single or very short wavelength may not be affective for use with FBG sensor system. For this system, a default white light source was used with 130 dBm power and it is kept constant throughout the simulation.

2.3.  FBG

The FBG component is the main component in the simulation that has variables manipulated. The Bragg grating wavelength chosen is 1550 nm since it is among the commonly used wavelength for FBG sensing. The grating length of fiber is set constant at 10 mm throughout the study. Index modulation is set at 0.0002 for the FBG and is also a controlled parameter. The grating profile will be varied in order to observe the effects of different grating profiles on the transmission and reflectivity spectra in the simulation.

2.4.  OSA

Optical spectrum analyser or optical receiver is mandatory for any optical based sensors including FBG as it detects the incoming light propagation. The optical receiver then sends the received light signals to be converted into readable data. In lab-based study, OSA typically combine these functions of receiving and signal conversion into transmission and reflectivity spectrum. The OSA settings used in this simulation is with resolution of 0.001 m. The resolution value allows for more data points to be recorded brings more accurate results.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1.  Effect of Grating Profiles

There are many different grating profiles of an FBG. These grating profiles may affect the spectrum of both the transmission and reflectivity. The grating profiles are made different with the periods or arrangement of the grating follows different model. Different phase mask can be used for the imprinting of different grating profiles. In this study, Uniform grating along with several other grating profiles is tested.

3.1.1.      Uniform Profile

Uniform grating profiles is the most common imprinted FBG profiles that has seen its use in sensing. The uniform periodicity profile affects light modulation and follows the Braggs equation which is:

where, λB is the Bragg wavelength, ?_??? is the refractive index of the propagating light and ΛG is the index modulation periodicity [19]. In this study, light modulation across a uniform profile FBG has been simulated. In Figure 3 transmission and reflectivity of light propagated pass the profiles has been recorded. As predicted, the response have showed that the peak power exists on the 1550 nm wavelength. This is the wavelength at which the grating was imprinted on. Figure 2(a) showed the transmission power trough occurring and on Figure 2(b), reflectivity spectra showed peaks at the same Bragg wavelength. This simulation has demonstrated the regular uniform FBG profiles connected with regular power source. There appears to be minor side lobes occurring on Figure 2(b). These side lobes may not be favourable for FBG sensors that are tailored for high precision sensing. However, the side lobes does not hinder the uniform profiles from entering the market as region or array monitoring system.

3.1.2. Chirped Profile

A different profile than the typical uniform profile of FBG is the chirped FBG. The gratings in a chirped FBG varies in terms of periodicity along the grated regions depending on the chirp pattern on the phase mask. This produces spectrums that are different than the original, uniform and non-apodized FBGs. The wavelength spectrums produced via chirped FBGs are much broader than uniform profiled FBGs which can range between several nanometers or even thousands of nanometers depending on the chirp rate, grating length and phase mask used for writing the FBG in a fiber [20].

Based on Figure 4, chirped FBG with uniform apodization and follows similar Bragg wavelength, index modulation and grating length as table 1, has been simulated. It was seen that both Figure 4(a) and Figure 4(b) showed broader spectrum that uniform FBG. No shifts of transmission peaks and reflectivity troughs was seen which is expected. The breadth of the peaks is observed to be approximately 4 nm. Both transmission power and reflectivity shows no deterioration when chirp profile is applied without altering other parameters. Figure 4 has successfully demonstrated a chirp profile via simulation that satisfy with other studies [21, 22]. While having wider Bragg peaks in both reflectivity and transmission, chirped FBGs can have certain suitable purposes. However, if high accuracy detection is preferred, chirped FBG may not be the best grating profile to be utilised. This is due to small shifts that occur upon detection may not be visible or detected and could lead to misinterpretation at the end signal-to-data conversion.

Figure 3: Optical power spectrum of uniform FBG (a) Transmission and (b) Reflectance.

Figure 4: Optical power spectrum of linear chirped FBG (a) Transmission and (b) Reflectivity.

Figure 5: Optical power spectrum of Gaussian apodized FBG  (a) Transmission and (b) Reflectivity.

3.1.3. Gaussian Apodized Profile

Another variant of FBG profile other than chirped and uniform are apodized FBGs. These FBGs differ in terms of the way the gratings are imprinted on to the fiber. They are written in a manner that the grating intensities gradually change along the grated region until it becomes similar to the rest of the fiber. Specifically, in gausian apodized FBG, the grating intensity change along the grating length follows Gaussian modelling variant of the original Bragg wavelength equation. The emergence of this type of grating profile serves to reduce side lobes that may appear on uniform grated FBG [8]. Apodized FBG are also known to result in more narrow peaks of both reflectivity and transmission spectra. Besides gaussian model for index modulation and grating intensity determination, other models include Nuttal model and Pi (π) apodized model [23].

      In this study, Gaussian apodized profile was simulated based on table 1 properties of the FBG. Figure 5 shows the simulated transmission and reflectivity spectra of the aforementioned FBG. Side lobe reduction occured and is observable on both of the spectra when compared to a uniform FBG. The peaks reflectivity and transmission trough are slightly narrower if compared with uniform profiles. Reflectivity and transmission power however, does suffer loss of ~10 dbm in comparison with uniform profile FBG. With the presence of side lobe reduction and narrow Bragg peak, utilization of apodized FBG is favourable for accurate sensing. Even though Gaussian apodized FBG may have lower side lobe appearance and narrow peaks, the low transmission power may be a hindrance if the FBG system is to take part in longer distances.

3.2.  Effect of Temperature with FBG

FBG type sensors are used in wide variety of temperature ranges depending on the type of industries that utilize it. Simulation of FBG in different range of temperatures is shown on Figure 6. When used in oceanography for monitoring ocean temperatures, a sensor should be at least sensitive at temperature ranges of 10˚C [24]. This posed no problem for FBG sensors array as simulated in Figure 6. At higher than ambient temperatures of around 60˚C, A notable shift of the spectrum from its original wavelength of 1550 nm is detectable. At the said temperature, is observed when an FBG sensor is used in conjunction of a surgical tool to ablate cancer cells [25]. Upon higher temperature use for nuclear reactor temperature monitoring, an FBG may require modifications or special temperature proof casing. As mentioned by Mohamed, et al. [26], temperatures can reach up to 1600˚C. When using normal SMF made of silica, melting point of 400C should be taken into account. This limits the use of FBG if it is grated within a standard SMF down to only ~380˚C. While 390-400˚C is still possible to simulate, in reality, engineering constraints have to be considered for safety.

Figure 6: Optical power Spectra of FBG when exposed to various temperatures (a) Transmission and (b) Reflectivity.

Figure 7: Spectra of FBG utilized within various system distance (a) Transmission spectra. (b) Reflectivity spectra.

3.3.  Effect of Transmission Power and Distance

Transmission power is at its ideal value when it is simulated or close to its ideal value when tested within lab scale lengths (<1m). When incorporating FBG within an array where the source is further than 1km in distance, power attenuation will occur. The reason for simulating this is to show that at what distance will the transmission and reflected power will deteriorate. The chosen length was based on different uses in the industry. At a distance of 10 km chosen due to most small and medium industries or premises require this distance of FBG array for environment monitoring [27]. For larger area coverage such as land and oceanic surveying applications, 50 km distance may be favourable therefore it is chosen as one of the simulation parameter for fiber distance [28]. For remote sensing in rural areas where the source and signal receiver has to be far from the area of monitoring due to power source availability, may require fiber length of up to 100 km.

Figure 7 (a) and (b) are the spectra of FBG sensor simulated within an optical circuit over various distances. The FBG used for simulation is a uniform profile variant due to it being the most stable in terms of providing low power loss due to attenuation. Furthermore, uniform FBGs are much easier to mass produce due to uniform phase mask availability. Within 10 km distance, there are hardly any power loss for both reflectivity and transmission spectra as shown on Figure 7 (a) and (b). Reflectivity on Figure 7 (b) shown significant attenuation power loss when distance of FBG optical circuit is extended to distances of 50 km and 100 km. Transmission spectra in Figure 6 (a) shown a minimal and slightly noticeable power loss. This is due to that reflected power may experience loss when reflected by the Bragg gratings due to leakage of evanescent waves occurring on FBG grated regions.

3.4.  Sustainable Power Source

In environmental sensing, it is essential for light sources of sensors to have stable power input and output. While access to power may be available in established areas and urban environments, some other areas may not connected to main power grid. To remedy this issue, a light source powered by sustainable and renewable energy is favoured. A good candidate for powering light source can be a vibrational sensor which rely on the continuous minute vibration of the earth’s crust [1]. In powering light source for optical sensing applications, at least 25 – 50 mW power is required. Vibrational sensors that can resonate with frequencies of <10 Hz at acceleration level (g) by <1.0 can supply enough power to FBG sensors [1]. To achieve this, vibrational sensor proposed within our previous paper [1] was equipped with rectangular clamp-free cantilever beams with attached magnet at the tips. The magnets will vibrate at the low acceleration level causing change in magnetic flux and inducing voltage in the coil. This in turn can produce electrical DC power which can be use with various low power consumption devices.  By having a renewable energy source powering the FBG sensors, environmental condition mapping in remote locations is possible.

4. Conclusion and Recommendation

Several forms of FBG grating profiles has been reported via simulation of its transmission and reflectivity spectra. Temperature sensing of FBG has been simulated at various temperatures that are used in different industries ranging from as low as 10˚C to as high as 400˚C. Higher temperatures of >400˚C may require modifications that protects the FBG thermally and mechanically for certain rough applications such as monitoring greater nuclear reactor or volcanic core. When used within a high distance optical circuit, reflectivity was seen to suffer greatly with increasing distance and nearly not usable at distances spanning >100 km. Therefore, it is advisable to rely on remote optical source that is powered by renewable energy source within a FBG sensing system or array that spans greater distances. Multiple FBG of 50 km length should be optimal for use with one remote optical source. For greater coverage, multiple system of FBG and power source each with only 50 km distances between each other may be required for monitoring over a very large area. Furthermore, when an independent and self-powering optical broadband source is used, more remote areas can be monitored such as in vast open seas or subterranean regions. It has been demonstrated that FBG sensor can is capable to operate in power as low as 130 dBm but still maintains proper functions as shown in the obtained results. Although power loss due attenuation was apparent, it does not limit the sensing capability of the FBG to other environmental parameters such as temperature to some extent. This paper  provided performance evaluation for FBG of various grating profiles and satisfied the theory of each grating performance.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Acknowledgement

The funding provider of this study is the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia under the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS), No. FRGS/1/2018/TK10/HWUM/02/2.

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16. Wided Hechkel, Brahim Maaref, Néjib Hassen, "Coupled Apodization Functions Applied to Enhance Image Quality in Ultrasound Imaging using Phased Arrays", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 5, pp. 149–157, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj060517
17. Prattana Deeprasertkul, Royol Chitradon, "A Monthly Rainfall Forecasting from Sea Surface Temperature Spatial Pattern", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 5, pp. 101–106, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj060513
18. Yao Sun, Keijiro Nakamura, Xin Zhu, "The Effect of Myocardial Fat’s Thickness and Myocardial Impedance on Bipolar Radiofrequency Catheter Ablation Using Computer Simulation", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 5, pp. 83–89, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj060511
19. Mila Ilieva-Obretenova, "Devices and Methods for Microclimate Research in Closed Areas – Underground Mining", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 395–400, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj060444
20. Rafael Souza Cotrim, João Manuel Leitão Pires Caldeira, Vasco Nuno da Gama de Jesus Soares, Pedro Miguel de Figueiredo Dinis Oliveira Gaspar, "Power Saving MAC Protocols in Wireless Sensor Networks: A Performance Assessment Analysis", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 341–347, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj060438
21. Kumar Rahul Tiwari, Indar Singhal, Alok Mittal, "Real Time RSSI Compensation for Precise Distance Calculation using Sensor Fusion for Smart Wearables", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 327–333, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj060436
22. Hanan Naser, Fatema Alaali, "Mitigation of Nitrous Oxide Emission for Green Growth: An Empirical Approach using ARDL", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 189–195, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj060423
23. Ahmed R. Sadik, Christian Goerick, "Multi-Robot System Architecture Design in SysML and BPMN", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 176–183, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj060421
24. Bonginkosi Allen Thango, Jacobus Andries Jordaan, Agha Francis Nnachi, "A Novel De-rating Practice for Distributed Photovoltaic Power (DPVP) Generation Transformers", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 154–160, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj060418
25. Bonginkosi Thango, Jacobus Jordaan, Agha Nnachi, "Peculiar Stray Gassing Occurrences in Solar Photovoltaic Transformers during Service", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 131–136, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj060315
26. Kakoma Chilala Bowa, Mabvuto Mwanza, Mbuyu Sumbwanyambe, Kolay Ulgen, Jan-Harm Pretorius, "Assessment of Electricity Industries in SADC Region Energy Diversification and Sustainability", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 894–906, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj0602102
27. Asep Herry Hernawan, Deni Darmawan, Asyifa Imanda Septiana, Idriyani Rachman, Yayoi Kodama, "Developing Kamishibai and Hologram Multimedia for Environmental Education at Elementary School", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 656–664, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj060276
28. Bonginkosi Allen Thango, Jacobus Andries Jordaan, Agha Francis Nnachi, "A Novel Approach for Evaluating Eddy Current Loss in Wind Turbine Generator Step-Up Transformers", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 488–498, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj060256
29. Abdulla M. Alsharhan, "Survey of Agent-Based Simulations for Modelling COVID-19 Pandemic", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 439–447, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj060250
30. Majda Lakhal, Mohamed Benslimane, Mehdi Tmimi, Abdelali Ibriz, "Architecture of Real-Time Patient Health Monitoring Based on 5G Technologies", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 351–358, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj060240
31. Amany Khalil, Osama Tolba, Sherif Ezzeldin, "Design Optimization of Open Office Building Form for Thermal Energy Performance using Genetic Algorithm", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 254–261, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj060228
32. Prosper Ndizihiwe, Burnet Mkandawire, Venant Kayibanda, "Variation of the Air-Fuel Ratio with Inlet Pressure, Temperature and Density", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 190–194, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj060222
33. Amine Mounaam, Ridouane Oulhiq, Ahmed Souissi, Mohamed Salouhi, Khalid Benjelloun, Ahmed Bichri, "A Model-Driven Digital Twin Framework Development for Sulfur Dioxide Conversion Units Simulation", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 122–131, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj060215
34. Isman Khazi, Andras Kovacs, Ulrich Mescheder, Ali Zahedi, Bahman Azarhoushang, "Fusion of Optical and Microfabricated Eddy-Current Sensors for the Non-Destructive Detection of Grinding Burn", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 1414–1421, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj0601160
35. Meyliana, Cadelina Cassandra, Yakob Utama Chandra, Surjandy, Erick Fernando, Henry Antonius Eka Widjaja, Harjanto Prabowo, "Recording of Academic Transcript Data to Prevent the Forgery based on Blockchain Technology", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 1273–1278, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj0601145
36. Naeem Ahmed Haq Nawaz, Musab Bassam Al-Zghoul, Hamid Raza Malik, Omar Radhi Aqeel Al-Zabi, Bilal Radi Ageel Al-Zabi, "Wireless Sensor Networks Simulation Model to Compute Verification Time in Terms of Groups for Massive Crowd", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 1229–1240, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj0601140
37. Basavaraj Madagouda, R. Sumathi, "Artificial Neural Network Approach using Mobile Agent for Localization in Wireless Sensor Networks", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 1137–1144, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj0601127
38. Shahrinaz Ismail, Faes Tumin, "Simulating Get-Understand-Share-Connect Model using Process Mining", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 1040–1048, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj0601115
39. Syeda Nadiah Fatima Nahri, Shengzhi Du, Barend Jacobus van Wyk, "Active Disturbance Rejection Control Design for a Haptic Machine Interface Platform", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 898–911, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj060199
40. Doni Purnama Alamsyah, Norfaridatul Akmaliah Othman, Rudy Aryanto, Mulyani, Yogi Udjaja, "Customer Behavior of Green Advertising: Confirmatory Factor Analysis", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 833–841, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj060192
41. Sana Elhidaoui, Khalid Benhida, Said Elfezazi, Yassine Azougagh, Abdellatif Benabdelhafid, "Model of Fish Cannery Supply Chain Integrating Environmental Constraints (AHP and TOPSIS)", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 798–809, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj060189
42. Abdulla M. Alsharhan, "Simulating COVID-19 Trajectory in the UAE and the Impact of Possible Intervention Scenarios", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 791–797, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj060188
43. Erick Fernando, Meyliana, Harco Leslie Hendric Spits Warnars, Edi Abdurachman, "Blockchain Technology for Tracing Drug with a Multichain Platform: Simulation Method", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 765–769, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj060184
44. Alan Catovic, Elvedin Kljuno, "Comparation of Analytical Models and Review of Numerical Simulation Method for Blast Wave Overpressure Estimation after the Explosion", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 748–756, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj060182
45. Antonio Vitale, Federico Corraro, Nicola Genito, Luca Garbarino, Leopoldo Verde, "An Innovative Angle of Attack Virtual Sensor for Physical-Analytical Redundant Measurement System Applicable to Commercial Aircraft", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 698–709, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj060176
46. Carol Dineo Diale, Mukondeleli Grace Kanakana-Katumba, Rendani Wilson Maladzhi, "Environmental Entrepreneurship as an Innovation Catalyst for Social Change: A Systematic Review as a Basis for Future Research", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 393–400, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj060145
47. Lixin Wang, Jianhua Yang, Sean Gill, Xiaohua Xu, "Data Aggregation, Gathering and Gossiping in Duty-Cycled Multihop Wireless Sensor Networks subject to Physical Interference", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 369–377, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj060142
48. Maria Cristina Piccirilli, Francesco Grasso, Antonio Luchetta, Stefano Manetti, Alberto Reatti, "Simulation of Pulse Width Modulation DC-DC Converters Through Symbolic Analysis Techniques", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 275–282, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj060132
49. Anatoly Stepanov, Vitaly Enin, "Sensorless Control and Corrected Error Commutation of the Brushless DC Motor", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 224–229, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj060125
50. José Paulo de Almeida Amaro, João Manuel Leitão Pires Caldeira, Vasco Nuno da Gama de Jesus Soares, João Alfredo Fazendeiro Fernandes Dias, "Autonomous Robot Path Construction Prototype Using Wireless Sensor Networks", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 169–177, 2021. doi: 10.25046/aj060119
51. Afsah Sharmin, Farhat Anwar, S M A Motakabber, "Efficient and Scalable Ant Colony Optimization based WSN Routing Protocol for IoT", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 6, pp. 1710–1718, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj0506204
52. Hasan Tariq, Abderrazak Abdaoui, Farid Touati, Mohammad Abdullah Al Hitmi, Damiano Crescini, Adel Ben Mnaouer, "Real-time Gradient-Aware Indigenous AQI Estimation IoT Platform", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 6, pp. 1666–1673, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj0506198
53. Tarek Frikha, Hedi Choura, Najmeddine Abdennour, Oussama Ghorbel, Mohamed Abid, "ESP2: Embedded Smart Parking Prototype", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 6, pp. 1569–1576, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj0506188
54. Ryosuke Sakakibara, Yasuhiro Shindo, Kazuo Kato, Pak Kon Choi, Akira Takeuchi, "Basic Study of 3-D Non-Invasive Measurement of Temperature Distribution using Ultrasound Images during HIFU Heating", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 6, pp. 1306–1311, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj0506155
55. Anatoly Panyukov, Alexander Bogushov, "Development of Secondary Processing Data Methods under Single Point Thunderstorm Activity Monitoring", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 6, pp. 1096–1102, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj0506133
56. Maria Cecilia Galvez, Daniel Paulo Tipan, Angelo Ashtin Valera, Edgar Vallar, Alma Nacua, "Ozone, Nitrogen Dioxide, and PM\(_{2.5}\) Measurement at Three Urban Parks in Manila, Philippines using Portable Sensors", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 6, pp. 1027–1032, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj0506124
57. Carlos M. Oppus, Maria Aileen Leah G. Guzman, Maria Leonora C. Guico, Jose Claro N. Monje, Mark Glenn F. Retirado, John Chris T. Kwong, Genevieve C. Ngo, Annael J. Domingo, "Design of a Remote Real-time Groundwater Level and Water Quality Monitoring System for the Philippine Groundwater Management Plan Project", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 6, pp. 1007–1012, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj0506121
58. Nu’man Amri Maliky, Nanda Pratama Putra, Mochamad Teguh Subarkah, Syarif Hidayat, "Prediction of Vessel Dynamic Model Parameters using Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulation", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 6, pp. 926–936, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj0506110
59. Hong-Nga Thi Pham, "Effect of Heat Retention Time and Pouring Temperature on Graphite Shape and Mechanical Properties of Gray Cast Iron", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 6, pp. 838–844, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj0506100
60. Robert Antonio Romero-Flores, "An Economic Theory Perspective for the Fight Against Poverty in the Peruvian Andes", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 6, pp. 497–506, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj050659
61. Naeem Ahmed Haq Nawaz, Hamid Raza Malik, Ahmed Jaber Alshaor, Kamran Abid, "A Simulation Based Proactive Approach for Smart Capacity Estimation in the Context of Dynamic Positions and Events", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 6, pp. 423–438, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj050651
62. Hoang Anh Dung, Nguyen Manh Cuong, Nguyen Phan Kien, "Multi-Directional Light Sensing Using A Rotating Sensor", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 6, pp. 221–227, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj050626
63. Eugen Harinda, Hadi Larijani, Ryan M. Gibson, "Trace-Driven Simulation of LoRaWAN Air Channel Propagation in an Urban Scenario", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 6, pp. 211–220, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj050625
64. Mikhail Vladimirovich Vartanov, Trung Ta Tran, Van Dung Nguyen, "Research of the Effect of Rotation and Low-Frequency Vibration on the Robotic Assembly Process", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 6, pp. 160–168, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj050619
65. Redha Touati, Max Mignotte, Mohamed Dahmane, "A Circular Invariant Convolution Model-Based Mapping for Multimodal Change Detection", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 1288–1298, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj0505155
66. Ioana Marcu, Ana-Maria Drăgulinescu, Carmen Florea, Cristina Bălăceanu, Marius Alexandru Dobrea, George Suciu, "Agricultural Data Fusion for SmartAgro Telemetry System", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 1266–1272, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj0505152
67. Paul Cabacungan, Carlos Oppus, Gregory Tangonan, Nerissa Cabacungan, John Paul Mamaradlo, Neil Angelo Mercado, "Design and Development of Electronic Sensor and Monitoring System of Smart Low-cost Phototherapy Light System for Non-Invasive Monitoring and Treatment of Neonatal Jaundice", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 1233–1246, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj0505149
68. Kodai Kitagawa, Koji Matsumoto, Kensuke Iwanaga, Siti Anom Ahmad, Takayuki Nagasaki, Sota Nakano, Mitsumasa Hida, Shogo Okamatsu, Chikamune Wada, "Posture Recognition Method for Caregivers during Postural Change of a Patient on a Bed using Wearable Sensors", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 1093–1098, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj0505133
69. Mohammed Chaouki Abounaima, Loubna Lamrini, Noureddine EL Makhfi, Mohamed Ouzarf, "Comparison by Correlation Metric the TOPSIS and ELECTRE II Multi-Criteria Decision Aid Methods: Application to the Environmental Preservation in the European Union Countries", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 1064–1074, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj0505131
70. Victoria Oguntosin, Akindele Ayoola E, "Control of Soft Robotic Artificial Muscle with Hand Gesture Using Leap Motion Sensor", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 1007–1012, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj0505123
71. Tri Nhut Do, Quang Minh Pham, Hoa Binh Le-Nguyen, Cao Tri Nguyen, Hai Minh Nguyen-Tran, "Development of a Wireless Displacement Estimation System Using IMU-based Device", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 781–788, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj050595
72. Mika Karjalainen, Tero Kokkonen, "Review of Pedagogical Principles of Cyber Security Exercises", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 592–600, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj050572
73. Witman Alvarado-Diaz, Brian Meneses-Claudio, Avid Roman-Gonzalez, "Proposal for a Control System to Optimize Water use in Households in Peru", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 278–281, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj050534
74. Martin Kenyeres, Jozef Kenyeres, "Applicability of Generalized Metropolis-Hastings Algorithm to Estimating Aggregate Functions in Wireless Sensor Networks", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 224–236, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj050528
75. Mohamed Hajjaj, Amine Tilioua, Abdellah Mellaikhafi, Abella Bouaaddi, "Thermal Performance Analysis of Parabolic Trough Solar Collector System in Climatic Conditions of Errachidia City, Morocco", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 217–223, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj050527
76. Wei Zhong Feng, Yu-Che Huang, Fang-Lin Chao, "Design of Aerial Panoramic Photography: Contrast between Industrialized and Natural Zones", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 849–856, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj050499
77. Sultana Parween, Syed Zeeshan Hussain, "A Review on Cross-Layer Design Approach in WSN by Different Techniques", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 741–754, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj050488
78. Panida Lorwongtrakool, Phayung Meesad, "Correlation-Based Incremental Learning Network for Gas Sensors Drift Compensation Classification", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 660–666, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj050479
79. Deepti Sehrawat, Nasib Singh Gill, "IoT Based Human Activity Recognition System Using Smart Sensors", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 516–522, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj050461
80. Beza Negash Getu, Mohamed Abdulkadir, Michael Tous, "Remote Control of Garden Plantation Water Pumps using Arduino and GSM Mobile", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 499–504, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj050459
81. Roberta Avanzato, Francesco Beritelli, "A CNN-based Differential Image Processing Approach for Rainfall Classification", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 438–444, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj050452
82. Nalluri Prophess Raj Kumar, Josemin Bala Gnanadhas, "Cluster Centroid-Based Energy Efficient Routing Protocol for WSN-Assisted IoT", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 296–313, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj050436
83. Rand Talib, Alexander Rodrigues, Nabil Nassif, "Energy Recovery Equipment and Control Strategies in Various Climate Regions", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 47–53, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj050407
84. Trinh Luong Mien, Vo Van An, Bui Thanh Tam, "A Fuzzy-PID Controller Combined with PSO Algorithm for the Resistance Furnace", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 568–575, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj050371
85. Nahid Akhter Jahan, M. Mofazzal Hossain, "Efficiency Enhancement of p-i-n Solar Cell Embedding Quantum Wires in the Intrinsic Layer", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 540–546, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj050367
86. Fatima Lakrami, Najib El Kamoun, Hind Sounni, Ouidad Albouidya, Khalid Zine-Dine, "The Design of an Experimental Model for Deploying Home Area Network in Smart Grid", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 419–431, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj050353
87. Anisur Rahman, "Non Parallelism and Cayley-Menger Determinant in Submerged Localization", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 150–157, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj050320
88. Rabeb Faleh, Souhir Bedoui, Abdennaceur Kachouri, "Review on Smart Electronic Nose Coupled with Artificial Intelligence for Air Quality Monitoring", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 739–747, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj050292
89. Asmae Bengag, Amina Bengag, Omar Moussaoui, "Attacks Classification and a Novel IDS for Detecting Jamming Attack in WBAN", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 80–86, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj050210
90. Martin Kenyeres, Jozef Kenyeres, "Distributed Linear Summing in Wireless Sensor Networks with Implemented Stopping Criteria", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 19–27, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj050203
91. Lorenzo Damiani, Roberto Revetria, Emanuele Morra, Pietro Giribone, "A Smart Box for Blood Bags Transport: Simulation Model of the Cooling Autonomy Control System", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 249–255, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj050131
92. Hassan Oubehar, Abdelouahed Selmani, Abdelali Ed-Dahhak, Abdeslam Lachhab, Moulay El Hassane Archidi, Benachir Bouchikhi, "ANFIS-Based Climate Controller for Computerized Greenhouse System", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 08–12, 2020. doi: 10.25046/aj050102
93. Aref Hassan Kurd Ali, Halikul Lenando, Mohamad Alrfaay, Slim Chaoui, Haithem Ben Chikha, Akram Ajouli, "Performance Analysis of Routing Protocols in Resource-Constrained Opportunistic Networks", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 4, no. 6, pp. 402–413, 2019. doi: 10.25046/aj040651
94. Amine Kardi, Rachid Zagrouba, "Attacks classification and security mechanisms in Wireless Sensor Networks", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 4, no. 6, pp. 229–243, 2019. doi: 10.25046/aj040630
95. Kira Rambow-Hoeschele, Nick Giani Rambow, Matthias Michael Hampel, David Keith Harrison, Bruce MacLeod Wood, "Creating a Digital Twin: Simulation of a Business Model Design Tool", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 4, no. 6, pp. 53–60, 2019. doi: 10.25046/aj040607
96. Hamid Ali Abed AL-Asadi, Abdulhadi Alhassani, Nor Azura Ahmed Hambali, Mustafa Abdulazeez AlSibahee, Saif Ali Alwazzan, Ali Mohammed Jasim, "Priority Incorporated Zone Based Distributed Clustering Algorithm for Heterogeneous Wireless Sensor Network", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 4, no. 5, pp. 306–313, 2019. doi: 10.25046/aj040539
97. Mohamed Elhefnawy, "Design and Simulation of a Doppler-Radar RF Front-End Transceiver", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 4, no. 5, pp. 250–257, 2019. doi: 10.25046/aj040531
98. Lajmi Imen, Masmoudi Wassim, Elleuch Mounir, Chtourou Hedi, "Improvement opportunities of a Simulation/Expert System Approach for Manufacturing System Sizing: A review and proposal", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 4, no. 5, pp. 213–223, 2019. doi: 10.25046/aj040527
99. Tlija Amira, Istrate Dan, Badii Atta, Gattoufi Said, Bennani Az-eddine, Wegrzyn-Wolska Katarzyna, "Stress Level Classification Using Heart Rate Variability", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 38–46, 2019. doi: 10.25046/aj040306
100. Amir Rizaan Rahiman, Md. Ashikul Islam, Md. Noor Derahman, "Resourceful Residual Energy Consumption in TDMA Scheduling for IoT-based Wireless Sensor Network", Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 31–37, 2019. doi: 10.25046/aj040305